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The creation of an African ‘bloodstream’: Malaria control during the Hitler War, 1942–1945 (Part 3)
Until 1942, Allied medics had distributed a daily dosage of five grains of quinine to all army personnel, but when supplies ran low, they experimented with synthesised versions of the drug. They tested two prototypes: quinacrine (reverse-engineered by Sterling Winthrop Co. from a captured German I. G. Farben product in 1941) and mepacrine (synthesised by Imperial Chemical Industries in 1939). British Army experiments showed that quinacrine was a superior antimalarial because it had few side effects, but mepacrine was in greater supply, so the Allied doctors in Accra settled on a daily dose of the latter by mid-1943. The White soldiers disliked mepacrine because it caused a yellowish pigmentation on their skin, but they were forced to take it every morning with their breakfast. African soldiers were required to take the drug too, but use of chemical prophylaxes stopped there. Despite the belief that the residents of Accra formed a reservoir for the disease, the Allies never considered offering malaria prophylaxes to their civilian employees or to the broader African community.
At the start of the campaign, the Allies hoped that chemical insecticides might help them avoid the expense of reengineering the Korle watershed. The Americans were especially interested in using a silver-bullet approach to control the local mosquito population because they did not want to fund infrastructure projects that they would have to abandon after the war. In April 1942, the US Army began spraying the larvicide Paris green on open water surrounding the barracks, and trucked pyrethrum aerosol bombs into British camps to clear the buildings of mosquitoes. They proceeded to spray all houses within a one-mile radius of the airport, three times a week. In 1944, when adequate supplies became available, they switched to spraying with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and by the end of the year, they were spraying all villages within an eight-mile radius of their camps, including the Accra city centre. Because DDT was not considered toxic to humans, the Malaria Control Group believed it was safe to disperse the chemical into water supplies. By 1944, the Allies commissioned a Piper J-3 cub to aerial spray the Korle, Kpeshi, and Klotey Lagoons, as well as partially spraying at the Sakumo Lagoon, several kilometres to the west of the city.
The spraying campaigns of 1942–45 were conducted at great expense in labour and materiel. For instance, during a three-month surge to eliminate the presence of mosquitoes and mosquito larvae at the airport in 1944, the Americans sprayed more than 1,000 pounds of Paris green, 2,000 pounds of pyrethrum, and 500 pounds of DDT, and they still found larvae in some of the streams leading into the lagoon. Major Macdonald had always believed that it would be cost effective to take the time to build drainage systems that would confine water to ditches and ponds, where smaller amounts of insecticides could be used, and as the war dragged on, the Americans too began to see the necessity of longer-term planning. In 1944, Allied engineers mapped out a pesticide spraying zone, re-dredged the sea outfall, and employed African crew to clear ditches and streams all the way up the Korle watershed. The Royal Army Medical Services followed up by spraying and oiling the waterways on a regular basis, a method that reduced the amount of pesticides used.
While the drainage scheme proceeded, Lt. Ribbands built his aforementioned Malaria Field Laboratory and began by collecting data about mosquito populations in the army camps. An expert on Anopheles gambiae, Lt. Ribbands had already researched the flight and biting habits of mosquitoes through a variety of experiments in India and West Africa, and his first step was to replicate a study that he had conducted in Sierra Leone, collecting mosquitoes from the Gold Coast Regiment barracks. The mosquito crew spread sheets on the floors of the tents and sprayed the air with pyrethrum or DDT to kill any insects inside. Afterward, Lt. Ribbands hired local men to pick up the mosquitoes and take them to a central laboratory at the airport for identification.
Lt. Ribbands and the malariologists expected to eliminate the mosquitoes around the Allied army barracks, but when he analysed the early results, he realised that the health of soldiers was still compromised by the in-flight of mosquitoes from nearby villages. According to the Allied records, the fear of contagion spurred the Malaria Control Group to relocate the villagers outside the airport to a newly conceived one-mile sanitary cordon. If this is true, then the Allies had extended the supposed flight range of a mosquito from one-quarter of a mile to a full mile and relocated the people of nearby Nima and Kanda because they had become “reservoirs of disease.” But though there are brief references to the planned evacuation of these nearby villages, no particular records demonstrate that a forced removal took place. If the evacuations did occur, they would have entailed the movement of hundreds of people (mostly Muslim newcomers to the city) by truck, as well as extensive documentation of claims for property. The lack of a paper trail raises the question of whether the residents of the villages were in fact relocated, but whether they were moved or not, a new spatial reckoning of Accra had been created because of the threat posed by infected mosquitoes.
Once he had established a cordon around the periphery of Korle Lagoon, Lt. Ribbands began to track the movements of Anopheles gambiae using his network of mosquito sheds. Built by African labourers in the employ of the British Army, the traps were single-room, timber-frame structures covered with screens and tar paper and fitted with baffles to let mosquitoes in at night. Ribbands modelled his traps on a prototype developed by American entomologist E. H. Magoon, but with a substantial difference: during his research in Jamaica, Magoon used only horses and mules to attract mosquitoes. Lt. Ribbands preferred human bait. Since he was largely concerned with studying the attraction of mosquitoes to White soldiers, it would have been logical to assign an American or British soldier to live in the traps, but the Allies were shorthanded, and Lt. Ribbands did not want to risk Allied airmen catching malaria. As a compromise, he hired African workers to sleep in the traps: “Africans selected as bait were chiefly men from the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast. They were chosen because most of them were homeless and it was felt that they would welcome the fine shelters provided by the mosquito traps, however, only those who could speak a few words of English were hired because they had to be able to understand the simple instructions. That the traps were home to these men was soon obvious when it was seen that they preferred to remain in the vicinity even during the daytime when they were not working.”
The choice of migrant workers as human bait is not surprising. These men go unnamed in the military records, but they were likely drawn from the same pool of immigrants recruited by the Gold Coast Medical Department as so-called volunteers in experiments at the Accra Laboratory during outbreaks of yellow fever and relapsing fever. But if they were homeless, as Ribbands suggested, it probably did not mean that they had nowhere to sleep. Newcomers to Accra usually were able to find a bed, even if that meant crowding in with their fellow migrants. And even if they did lack permanent residences, it is difficult to believe that they considered the traps desirable places to sleep. The sheds were small, filled with bugs, and lacking the benefit of the slightest breeze to cool the skin. It is also implausible that they thought of the traps as homes, considering that they were located in wooded areas and did not have locks to secure the doors. Moreover, the sheds were spread around a perimeter of several kilometres, and Lt. Ribbands rotated the men through the network of sheds at weekly intervals.
The military records also show that the hired bait did not always follow the rules. The men were required to stay in their sheds from sunset to sunrise. When they awoke, they were to leave the traps, carefully closing the baffles to catch the mosquitoes inside as they left, so that the spraying crew could lay down a tarpaulin, spray the sheds, and collect the insects. To monitor the sleeping patterns, Lt. Ribbands sent soldiers around the perimeter to ensure that the men serving as bait were actually sleeping in the traps and to prevent a reported “tendency to sit outside the trap at night”— an indication that the Africans who took part in the Malaria Control Group studies were not always willing and forthright participants. Though there is no record of outright resistance, the migrants did take measures to avoid mosquito bites and preserve their dignity.
[This piece is culled from a bookauthored by Jonathan Roberts, titled:Sharing the burden of sickness: A historyof healing and medicine in Accra]
When Abigail Fremah steps up to the Armwrestling table, the noise fades, the tension settles, and order takes over.
Despite a calm, but firm and meticulous disposition, she has become one of the quiet forces shaping Ghana’s growing reputation in the sport, not as an athlete, but a referee trusted on the continental stage.
Abigail’s journey into Armwrestling did not begin at the table. Like many Ghanaian sports enthusiasts, she grew up playing several disciplines. Football was her first love, but she also featured in volleyball and basketball during her school years. Sports, she says, was simply a way of life not just for her.
“It runs through the family. All my siblings are into sports,” she stated.
“I was involved in almost every sport in school, football, volleyball, netball, hockey; I did everything,” she recalls.
Her academic background in Health, Physical Education and Recreation laid a solid foundation for her sporting career. While on scholarship at the university (University of Cape Coast), she often used her modest budget to support young athletes, sometimes sharing skills and even T-shirts at programmes she attended. Giving back, she explains, has always been part of her motivation.
However, as she matured as an athlete, Abigail made a critical self-assessment.
“Armwrestling involves a lot of strength,” she admits. “Looking at my body type, I realised I couldn’t fit properly as a competitive athlete.”
That moment of honesty pushed her to a different trajectory but equally important path in sports; which is officiating.
During her National Service, she was encouraged by Mr Charles Osei Asibey, the President of the Ghana Armwrestling Federation (GAF), to consider officiating. He introduced her to a technical official, Mr Hussein Akuerteh Addy, who formally took her through the basics of Armwrestling officiating in 2021.
“I started as a case official,” she says. “We moved from region to region every week, officiating competitions. That’s where it all began.”
By 2022, Abigail was actively involved in national assignments, though she missed the African Championship that year. Her breakthrough came in 2023, when Ghana hosted the African Armwrestling Championship.
It was her first experience officiating at a major international competition and it changed everything.
“That was my first national and international exposure at the same time,” she says. “It really opened my eyes.”
Today, Abigail is a World Junior Armwrestling Referee, a status earned through performance, consistency and discipline. She explains that progression in officiating was not automatic.
“It’s all about performance, your appearance at African Championships, your conduct, how you handle pressure; that’s what takes you to the world level,” she stressed.
As a referee, Abigail’s priority is safety and fairness. Armwrestling, she notes, comes with risks, particularly injuries to the wrists, elbows, shoulders and arms.
“If athletes don’t follow the rules or refuse to listen to officials, injuries can happen,” she explains, adding that focus was everything.
Before every match, she ensures that all equipment which includes elbow pads, hand pegs and table alignment were properly set. Athletes are not allowed to cover their elbows, must grip correctly, and must follow the referee’s commands precisely.
“We make sure everything is fixed before the grip,” she says. “Once we say ‘Ready… Go’, there should be no confusion.”
She is also firm on discipline. Warnings are issued for infractions, and repeated misconduct attracts penalties.
“The referee must be respected, if you don’t listen, the rules will deal with you,” she says.
Abigail credits her confidence partly to her sporting family background. Her mother was a volleyball player, while other family members also participated in sports. Though they were initially concerned about her safety, her rise to the top reassured them.
“They were afraid at first,” she admits. “But they were also very proud, especially because some of them never got the opportunity to reach this level.”
Looking ahead, Abigail is optimistic about the future of Armwrestling in Ghana. In less than a decade, the country has produced African and world-level medalists, a sign, she believes, of great things to come for Ghana.
“Whenever we go out, we come back with medals such as gold and silver,” she says, and to her that was a sign of growth.
In the next five to ten years, Abigail sees herself rising to become a World Master Referee, the highest officiating level in the sport. Until then, her routine remains intense, training four times a week, working closely with athletes, standing on her feet for hours, and constantly refining her understanding of the rules.
“I love this sport,” she says simply. “That love is what keeps me going.”
Abigail encouraged women to be bold and intentional about their place in sports saying “don’t limit yourself because of fear or stereotypes.”
She also urged women to invest in learning, discipline and consistency, stressing that respect was earned through performance.
For Abigail, as Ghana’s armwrestlers continue to make their mark, she will remain where she is most effective at the table, ensuring the game is played right.
By Esinam Jemima Kuatsinu
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As he had promised Aperkeh, the elderly man and his wife and three daughters stopped by Aperkeh’s parents’ house. Mr Amando and his family were preparing to settle in for the night.
“Brother Ben and family”, Mr Joshua Amando said warmly, “although I know you are here on a matter that can hardly be described as joyous, it is still good to see you. You are welcome. Please sit down while I bring you water”.
“Yes, we will take water, even though we are hardly thirsty, because this is our home”.
“Okay, Ben”, he started after they had drank, “Let me go straight to the point. My daughter Priscilla has told me about the goings on between her brother Aperkeh and our daughter Stella.
Before informing me, Priscilla had expressed concern to Aperkeh about some habits he is adopting, especially the late nights and the drinking. She tells me that one Saturday morning, she was there when Stella complained about his drinking and some girls who had come to the house to look for him, and he assaulted her.
I called him and complained, but all he could say was that I don’t know what caused him to react that way, so I could not judge him. Now he does not answer my calls.
I have sent Priscilla to his house to call him, but he has refused to come. Unfortunately, Ben, my son is a much different person than the young boy who completed university and started work at the bank. I am really embarrassed about his treatment of Stella”.
“Joshua, let me assure you that even though what is happening is very unfortunate, it will not affect our relationship.
We have been friends since childhood, and I thought that with their parents’ blessing, the relationship between Aperkeh and Stella would grow to become a blessing to all of us. But there appears to be a real challenge now.
Stella thinks that Aperkeh wants her out of his house, and indeed Aperkeh himself told me that, about an hour ago.
So I’m taking my daughter home. I suggest that you do what you can to straighten him out, but if it does not work out, let’s accept the situation and continue to be one family.
I am sure that being the well behaved girl that she is, Stella will meet a young man who will cherish her. Fortunately, this problem is happening early in the day, so they can sort things out if possible, or move on with their lives if they are unable to stay together”.
“I’m really grateful for that, Ben. I will do my best in the next few days to reason with him, because apart from the relationship with Stella, Aperkeh is risking his job and career with this lifestyle.
A good job and salary offers an opportunity to gather momentum in life, not to destroy yourself”.
“Okay Brother Joshua. We will say goodnight. I hope to hear positive news from you”.
As he descended in the lift from the fourth to the ground floor, Aperkeh wondered who would be waiting at the reception to see him at nine on Monday morning. He had spent good time with both of his new girls during the weekend, so it had to be someone else. He got out of the lift and pulled a face when he saw Priscilla.
“Priscilla”, he said as he sat down by her, “what do you want here? You know Monday morning is a busy time at the bank. I am a very busy person, so say what you want, I have work to do”.
“You are very funny, Aperkeh. You are telling me, your sister, that you have work to do, so I should hurry up? Okay, Dad says I should advise you to come home tonight, because he wants to discuss the issue of Stella with you. He sent me to you twice, and you did not come.
He has tried to call you quite a number of times, but you have refused to answer his calls. He says that if you do not come tonight, you will be very surprised at what he will do. He says you will not like it at all, so better come.
“What is all this? Why won’t you people leave me alone? Stella is very disrespectful. I told her that if she wanted to continue to live in my house, she must obey me. It is that simple.
She chose to continue ordering me about, controlling me in my own house, so I told her that if she could not live under my conditions she should leave. And she left. In fact, her own father came and took her away. So what again?’’
“How did she disobey or control you? Was she complaining about your continuous drinking and late nights? And did you slap her on several occasions because of that? Did you tell her that if she could not live under your conditions she should leave? You actually said that to her father? You have forgotten that before she came to live with you, our two parents met and agreed, and gave it their blessing?’
“Why don’t you leave, Priscilla? I don’t have to listen to all that”. “Okay, I will go. Your father who gave birth to you and educated you to university level sends me to you, and you ask me to leave? I wish you would defy him, and refuse to come home as he’s telling you, because he is planning to give you the discipline you badly need. Let me tell you. Stella is such a beautiful and decent girl, and I assure you that someone will grab her before you say Jack. You are only 30 years old, and you have already become a drunkard”.
As he walked towards the lift, Aperkeh decided on what to do. He would go home, and calmly listen to what his father had to say. The old man was very unpredictable, and he wouldn’t dare ignore him. So he would take all the insults and threats, but as for Stella she was history. According to Priscilla, Stella was beautiful and all that, but she had not seen the two curvaceous princesses who were all over him, ready to do anything he asked. And these were not barely literate waakye girls, but university graduates from wealthy homes, really classy girls. With stuff like that, who needs a waakye girl? He smiled as he took his seat.
A few minutes to five, Aperkeh was packing up to leave for home to meet his dad when his phone rang. It was Priscilla.
“Aperkeh, Dad says you don’t need to bother to come. Stella’s dad says she came to him early this morning to plead that she would rather stay at home than return to your house. She thinks you are already decided to be rid of her, and she does not want to risk being assaulted again. So it’s done. You can go ahead and enjoy the nice life you have started”.
Before he could tell her to go to hell, Priscilla hanged up the line. He was partially stung that his dad had virtually cut him off. The last thing anyone would want was to fall out of relationship with his own family, which had always supported him.
But the truth was he was no longer interested in Stella. What was wrong with going by one’s feelings? He could only hope that one day, his parents and sister would try to reason with him.
By Ekow de Heer
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